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The Siege of Pensacola was fought in 1781, the culmination of Spain's conquest of the British province West Florida during the American War of Independence.
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When Spain entered the War in 1779, Bernardo de Gálvez, the energetic governor of Spanish Louisiana, immediately began offensive operations to gain control of British West Florida. In September 1779 he gained complete control over the lower Mississippi River by capturing Fort Bute and then shortly thereafter obtaining the surrender of the remaining forces following the Battle of Baton Rouge. He followed up these successes with the capture of Mobile on March 14, 1780, following a brief siege.
Gálvez began planning an assault on Pensacola, West Florida's capital, using forces from Havana, with the recently-captured Mobile as the launching point for the attack. However, British reinforcements arriving in Pensacola in April 1780 delayed the expedition, and when an invasion fleet finally sailed in October, it was dispersed by a hurricane a few days later. Gálvez spent nearly a month regrouping the fleet at Havana.[3]
Following the outbreak of hostilities with Spain 1779, General John Campbell, concerned over the condition of the defenses, requested reinforcements, and began construction of additional defenses. By early 1781, the Pensacola garrison consisted of the 16th Regiment, a battalion from the 60th, and 7 (Johnstones) Company of the 4th Battalion Royal Artillery (Present day 20 Battery Royal Artillery, 16 Regiment Royal Artillery). These were augmented by the Third Regiment of Waldeck and The Maryland Loyalist Battalion as well as the Pennsylvania Loyalists. These troops were provincial soldiers, rather than militia. In addition to the Loyalist soldiers, many Native Americans natives supported the British. After the fall of Mobile in March 1780, over 1,600 Indians came to defend Pensacola, with Creeks being the most numerous. Just before the Spanish attack there were 788 Native American fighters in Pensacola, but Campbell, not realizing the attack was imminent, sent about 300 away. During the siege and battle there were over 500 natives defending Pensacola, the majority of which were Choctaw.[4]
Gálvez had received detailed descriptions of the state of the defenses in 1779 when he sent an aide there under the guise of discussions concerning the return of escaped slaves, but Campbell made numerous changes in the intervening years. Pensacola's defense works in early 1781 consisted of Fort George, an earthen works topped by a palisade that was rebuilt under Campbell's directions in 1780. North of the fort he had built the Prince of Wales Redoubt, and to its northwest was the Queen's Redoubt, also built in 1780.[5] Campbell also erected a battery called Fort Barrancas Colorada near the mouth of the bay.
Gálvez and the Spanish fleet, under the command of Captain José Calbo de Irazabal, sailed from Havana on February 13 with about 1,300 men. Among these men were the militias of biracial and free Afro-Cubans. [6] Gálvez had ordered additional troops from New Orleans and Mobile to assist. Arriving outside Pensacola Bay on March 9, Gálvez landed some troops on Santa Rosa Island, the barrier island protecting the bay. When the island turned out to be undefended, he landed and emplaced some artillery, which was then used to drive away the British ships in the bay.
Getting the Spanish ships into the bay turned out to be difficult, as it had been in the previous year's capture of Mobile. Some materials were unloaded onto Santa Rosa Island to raise some of the ships, but Calbo, the fleet commander, refused to send any ships through the channel after the lead ship, the 64-cannonSan Ramon, grounded in its attempt, citing that danger, and some British guns that seemed to have range to the bay entrance.[7]
Gálvez then used his authority as Governor of Louisiana to commandeer those ships in the fleet that were from Louisiana. He then boarded the Gálveztown and on March 18 sailed her through the channel and into the bay; the other three Louisiana ships followed, under ineffective British cannonfire. After sending Calbo a detailed description of the channel, the captains under his command all insisted on making the crossing, which they did the very next day. Calbo, claiming that his assignment to deliver Gálvez' invasion force was complete, sailed the San Ramon back to Havana.[7]
On March 24, the Spanish army and militias moved to the center of operations, and the troops at Santa Rosa joined the forces arriving from Mobile. During the first weeks of April, the Pensacola fortifications were reconnoitered. The furthest redoubt from the city was the Crescent; next was the Sombrero, followed by Fort George. The troops established encampments and began the extensive preparations for the siege. Hundreds of engineers and workers transported supplies and armaments to the battlefield. [8] The men dug trenches, bunkers, and redoubts and constructed a covered road to shield the troops from the constant fire of British cannons, grapeshot, grenades, and howitzers. [9]
Their preparations were interrupted on April 19 when a large fleet was sighted heading towards the bay, which were at first thought to be British reinforcements. These ships were the combined Spanish and French fleet from Havana headed by of José Solano y Bote and François Aymar, the Baron de Monteil, bringing Spanish Field Marshal Juan Manuel de Cagigal. Reports of a British squadron sighted near Cape San Antonio had reached Havana earlier, and concerned that this fleet would support Pensacola, reinforcements were rushed to Gálvez. The Spanish fleet carried a crew of 1,700 and 1,600 soldiers, raising the total Spanish force to 8,000 men. [10] Solano decided to remain to assist Gálvez after the disembarkation of the troops, and the two men worked closely together.
On April 12, Gálvez was wounded by gunfire while viewing the British fortifications and the battlefield command was formally given to Col. José de Ezpeleta, a personal friend of Gálvez. [11] The Spanish batteries opened fire on April 30, beginning the full-scale attack on Pensacola fortifications. The Gulf continued its tempestuous storms, and on May 5 and 6, a hurricane again struck the Spanish ships. The Spanish navy was forced to withdraw, fearing that the fierce sea would crash the wooden ships on the shore. The army was on its own to continue the siege. The trenches flooded and the troops were granted a ration of brandy from Gálvez. [12]
On May 8, a fortunate howitzer blast hit the magazine in Fort Crescent. Black smoke billowed into the sky as the gunpowder supply exploded, killing 57 British troops and devastating the fortifications. Ezpeleta, commanding the light infantry, was then able to lead the charge to take Fort Crescent, and moved howitzers and cannons in place to open fire on the next two fortifications. The British fired back from Fort George, but were overwhelmed by the Spanish firepower.
Realizing that this final line of fortification could not sustain the barrage, the British hoisted the white flag from Fort George at 3 in the afternoon on that same day. On May 10, 1781, the formal surrender was complete. More than 1,100 British prisoners were taken and another 200 casualties sustained. The Spanish lost 74 men, with 198 wounded. [13]
The terms of capitulation included the entirety of British West Florida the Spanish captured, in addition to the British garrison, large quantities of war material and supplies, plus two British sloops[14]. Gálvez had the batteries and Fort Barrancas Coloradas moved closer to the bay entrance, and also built a similar battery on Santa Rosa Island as a precuation against future British attempts on Pensacola.
The British troops were first taken to Havana, and then returned to the British in New York in an exchange for Spanish prisoners of war, an action that drew protest from the United States. Gálvez' action was prompted by the brutal treatment that Spanish soldiers were receiving on British prison ships.
The men were welcomed as heroes when they arrived in Havana on May 30. King Charles III promoted Gálvez to lieutenant general. [15] Gálvez also was named governor of West Florida as well as Louisiana. The royal commendation also stated that in recognition of Gálvez alone forcing the entrance to the Bay, he could place on his coat of arms the words, “Yo Solo”. [16]
José Solano y Bote was later recognized by King Charles III for his efforts in coming to aid Gálvez with the title Marquez de Socorro. A painting showing Solano with his recognitions with Santa Rosa Bay in the background recorded this accomplishment. The painting is now in the Museo Naval of Madrid.A captured British flag is now on display at the new Spanish Army Museum in Toledo.